Mentorship relationships in graduate school: the apprenticeship model
Graduate students in academia juggle many roles, and mentoring often becomes one of the most rewarding and impactful. Rooted in the apprenticeship model, mentoring allows graduate students to guide undergraduates toward independence in research while sharpening their own leadership and communication skills. Successful mentors set clear expectations, encourage autonomy, adapt to their mentees' unique needs, and provide actionable feedback. By championing their mentees’ goals, graduate students build a collaborative and dynamic environment that benefits both parties, strengthens academic communities, and shapes the next generation of scholars.
It is commonly said that graduate students—and many others in academia—must wear many hats. First and foremost, we are researchers, but we are also educators, graphic designers, science communicators, and much more. While some students enter graduate school with experience in these diverse roles, one area they are often less prepared for is mentoring.
Mentoring, unbeknownst to me when I started graduate school, is one of the most important, most difficult, and yet most rewarding aspects of being in academia. Before we became graduate students, most of us were undergraduate research assistants, mentored by graduate students, post-docs, or faculty members. Mentorship provided us with hands-on experience and expert guidance, propelling us toward our own graduate studies. Now, as graduate students, we find ourselves in the position of becoming mentors often guiding undergraduate research assistants, honors students, or summer interns. Unfortunately, most of us are not handed a guidebook on mentoring in our graduate welcome packet (though some schools offer resources or courses). Instead, we often learn how to be mentors through trial and error.
At the heart of the mentoring process lies the apprenticeship model—a framework deeply rooted in the history of academia. In this blog post, we’ll explore the origins of this model, its relevance in graduate programs, and practical strategies for becoming an effective mentor.
The apprenticeship model is a training system, often lasting many years, designed to pass along knowledge or skills to a new generation of practitioners. This model, widely used in professions that require hands-on skills—such as shoemaking and baking—has also been adapted to the arts and sciences, including fields like philosophy and engineering. Over time, the apprenticeship model found its way into academia, emerging during the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance periods as universities became centers of learning (Välimaa 2019). Mentorship was especially prominent in professions like medicine (Siraisi 2009) and engineering (Vérin and Gouzévitch 2011) where practical skills were essential to success on the job. Later, figures like Galileo (Peterson 2015) mentored protégés in astronomy and physics, laying the groundwork for modern academic mentorship. As Ph.D. programs developed, the apprenticeship model became formalized, creating a structure where students learned directly from senior scholars.
While much of the discussion around academic mentorship focuses on graduate students and faculty advisors, this blog post will spotlight the unique relationship between graduate students and undergraduates. For graduate students, mentoring may feel daunting—balancing your own workload while supporting a mentee’s growth is no small task. However, mentoring doesn’t just benefit mentees; it also profoundly enhances the professional, academic, and personal development of mentors.
One of the strongest skills you develop while mentoring students is your ability to lead. Mentees usually have high levels of motivation, strong work ethics, and can be incredibly passionate about research. However, they may be unprepared to lead a research project on their own depending on whether they have had previous experience in research. Thus, they may need the guidance of a mentor to complete a project from start to finish. As a mentor, you learn how to delegate tasks effectively, simplify complex concepts, and adapt your communication to meet mentees’ needs. These experiences as a mentor are invaluable and prepare you for leadership roles in and outside of academia. The mentoring relationship can also cultivate a valuable collaborator, contributing data, analysis, and fresh ideas. In my own experience, mentees have grown into independent researchers, taking the lead on projects with minimal supervision. This symbiotic relationship not only enriches your lab’s output but also builds your mentees’ confidence and competence. Finally, watching a mentee succeed, whether presenting at a conference, publishing their first paper, or pursuing graduate studies, is incredibly rewarding. Currently, as a 4th year PhD candidate, some of my fondest memories in graduate school are watching my mentees succeed in science, watching them go through the “Aha!” moment, and praising them for the awards they win or graduate programs they get accepted to.
Mentoring, like any other skill, requires practice, thoughtful preparation, and adaptability as no two mentoring relationships will ever be the same. Each mentee will likely require different types of support, so being malleable to the needs of your mentees is essential for a successful mentee-mentor relationship. Albeit, there are some general principles of best practices in mentoring that can be followed and later refined depending on the mentee's needs.
Establishing expectations. Before a mentee officially joins your lab, it is beneficial to clearly outline expectations. While many students are excited about the prospects of getting involved in research, few have a realistic understanding of the amount of work it entails. Thus, it is important to inform potential mentees about the expected hours of commitment, higher levels of independent work than normally experienced, and about the, sometimes, chaotic nature of a lab environment (experiences may vary across labs) (Whiteside, Pantelone, and Hunter-Reel 2007). At the start of these relationships, it may be beneficial to establish a mentor-mentee agreement, a contract signed by both the mentor and mentee that clearly outlines the responsibilities and expectations of each person. Many graduate programs have similar agreements for faculty and graduate student relationships. If your program has a similar document, it can be repurposed to be used for the grad-undergrad mentoring relationship.
Fostering independence. For a mentee to succeed, they must be guided toward becoming self-sufficient in their work. Independence not only builds confidence but also sharpens their problem-solving skills, setting up mentees for success in future research or professional positions. Furthermore, students who can demonstrate independence are more competitive when applying for graduate studies. They will be able to articulate their role in research projects they’ve led, signaling their capability as independent researchers. As a mentor, your goal is to strike the right balance between providing guidance and encouraging autonomy. A practical way to achieve this is by assigning tasks that match the mentee’s current skill level while challenging them to grow. For instance, you can start with weekly tasks that gradually increase in complexity. This allows the mentee to develop their expertise step by step, building their confidence as they master more challenging responsibilities. Over time, as the mentee gains experience, their level of autonomy will naturally increase. It’s also important to remember that each mentee will join your lab with a unique background and skill set. Some may have prior research experience, while others may be starting their first-ever research experience. Adapt your approach to meet the needs of each individual. By doing so, you create an environment where all mentees, regardless of their starting point, can thrive and grow into independent researchers.
Offer feedback. Constructive feedback is essential for a mentee’s growth, but it should be balanced with encouragement to build their confidence and motivation. Without positive reinforcement, mentees may doubt their abilities. On the other hand, without constructive criticism, they won’t have the direction they need to improve. Striking the right balance between the two is key to effective mentoring. When providing feedback, start by acknowledging what the mentee is doing well. This sets a positive tone and reinforces their strengths. For example, you might say, “You did a great job analyzing the data and presenting it clearly!” Once you’ve highlighted their successes, offer specific, actionable suggestions for improvement. For example, “Next time, you might consider adding a section that discusses the implications of the findings at the end. You want to make sure your audience understands why your finding is important.”. In this way, you provide areas of improvement, but you also explain to the mentee why they should do something. Finally, feedback should be provided in a timely and consistent manner. Weekly check-ins provide opportunities to address challenges as they arise and keep the mentee on track.
Adapt mentoring styles to each mentee. We have discussed this a bit in the last two points, but it is very important and should be considered repeatedly when mentoring students. Each student will join your lab with a different skill set, but also with a different set of needs, emotionally and professionally. Always consider what skills your mentee currently has and which ones they need to learn to succeed. I often ask my mentees to keep me updated on their future career choices as they progress in the lab. This allows me to change the tasks and projects they work on to reflect the skills they will need in their desired career. For example, students aiming for industry/tech roles post-graduation may benefit from projects involving coding or data analysis, while those pursuing graduate school might need more opportunities for independent research and hands-on training in experimental design. Beyond professional considerations, mentors should also prioritize cultural sensitivity—actively listening to mentees, respecting their diverse backgrounds, and addressing potential barriers to create an inclusive and supportive environment. By tailoring your approach, you can help each mentee feel valued, empowered, and prepared to achieve their goals.
Champion your mentees. As a mentor, one of your most significant roles is to champion your mentee’s aspirations and help them realize their potential. For many mentees, this involves supporting them in clarifying and pursuing their version of what Psychologist Dr. Daniel J. Levinson calls "The Dream"—their ideal vision of a successful, meaningful life (Levinson 1991). By believing in their potential, sharing their excitement, and providing a safe space for exploration, you help them navigate the challenges of understanding and striving toward their goals. Mentors also serve as guides during moments of conflict or uncertainty. Many of my mentees often feel distress during job hunting or when applying for graduate school. As mentors, we should aim to comfort students during these moments and to provide our own, personal, similar experiences when applicable. Ultimately, championing a mentee’s dreams is about equipping them with the confidence, tools, and independence they need to continue pursuing their aspirations, even after the mentoring relationship has ended.
Closing remarks
Mentoring is one of the most rewarding opportunities for a graduate student. It allows us to directly shape and train the next generation of scholars while enhancing our own skills as leaders. I hope that this blog can provide some useful insight into mentoring undergraduates. I would highly recommend exploring potential mentoring courses at your own institution (often provided outside your home department) and enrolling in them if you do plan to mentor students. Though it can be challenging, embracing our roles as mentors will allow us to contribute to a stronger academic community.
Extra readings
Temple, L., Sibley, T. Q., & Orr, A. J. (Eds.). (2019). How to mentor undergraduate researchers. Council on Undergraduate Research.
Whiteside, U., Pantelone, D. W., Hunter-Reel, D., Eland, J., Kleiber, B., & Larimer, M. (2007). Initial Suggestions for Supervising and Mentoring Undergraduate Research Assistants at Large Research Universities. International Journal of Teaching & Learning in Higher Education, 19(3)
Johnson, W. B., & Huwe, J. M. (2003). Getting mentored in graduate school. American Psychological Association.
References
Levinson, Daniel. 1991. Seasons Of A Mans Lif. New York, NY: Ballantine Books.
Peterson, Mark A. 2015. “Galileo’s New Mathematical Philosophy.” Forum Italicum A Journal of Italian Studies 49 (1): 119–38.
Siraisi, Nancy G. 2009. Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine: An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Välimaa, Jussi. 2019. “The Emergence of Universities in the Middle Ages.” In Higher Education Dynamics, 11–38. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Vérin, Hélène, and Irina Gouzévitch. 2011. “The Rise of the Engineering Profession in Eighteenth Century Europe: An Introductory Overview.” Engineering Studies 3 (3): 153–69.
Whiteside, Ursula, David W. Pantelone, and Dorian Hunter-Reel. 2007. “Initial Suggestions for Supervising and Mentoring Undergraduate.” International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 19 (3): 324–30.
About the Author
Jefferson Ortega is a PhD candidate in Cognitive Neuroscience at the University of California, Berkeley. He is also a Eugene Cota-Robles Fellow and an NIH-sponsored DSPAN Fellow. Jefferson, originally from the Dominican Republic, grew up in New York City in Washington Heights and the Bronx. Before joining UC Berkeley, he received his Bachelor's Degree in Psychology at the City College of New York, CUNY. Currently, his research aims to understand how humans process complex social information and make decisions based on this information. He is also a founder and currently the co-director of the Research Experience Pathways program, which connects underrepresented undergraduate students to paid research opportunities while leading professional development workshops that aim to demystify the road to graduate school.
